In a fast changing world

With all eyes on Durban and the issue of race, Pierre Sané and Jérôme Bindé look to the hidden dangers of modern science and the trends of globalisation
Over the last two centuries, pseudo-biological theories of "racial" inequality have often been enlisted in an attempt to bolster ideologies of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and intolerance. In recent decades, however, the inanity of these theories has been demonstrated. Science, and modern genetics in particular, has constantly affirmed the unity of the human species, and denied that the notion of race has any foundation.
Article 1 of the "Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights", states that the human genome "underlies the fundamental unity of all members of the human family, as well as the recognition of their inherent dignity and diversity". This declaration was unanimously adopted at UNESCO's 29th General Conference on 11 November 1997, and then by the United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1998. Yet racism and racial discrimination have hardly vanished. They have not only survived the scientific deconstruction of the concept of race, but even seem to be gaining ground in most parts of the world.
Powerful transformations are currently under way in the world's technology, economy, politics, society and culture. These transformations, associated with the third industrial revolution in history -- the revolution of new technologies -- are often summed up by the word "globalisation" and seem to favour the spread of new forms of racism and discrimination. Social inequality and uncertainty have increased in the age of globalisation, as have explosive communitarian reactions and the flaring up of passions regarding ethnic, national, "racial" and religious identities. In every region of the world, these passions increasingly give way to violence, all too often in fanatic guises that end in massacres among neighbouring populations.
Thus, even as we celebrate the dismantling of institutional apartheid in South Africa, in most regions of the world, we are forced to recognise that various forms of social and urban apartheid are on the rise. Very often these forms are based on a structural discrimination, which is racial in character; they can be explicit or implicit, but it is remarkable that they no longer need to rely on conscious reference to racist thematics. In this universe of walled-up housing developments and impenetrable neighbourhoods, the very concept of public space -- which is inseparable from the concept of democracy -- is on the wane, and sometimes even disappearing.
Forms of social, urban and educational apartheid have spread rapidly, and they comprise a system of "invisible racism" and veiled discrimination as formidable as more outward varieties. For these reasons, the questions of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and intolerance need to be thought out anew, in a forward-looking way. Racism and racial discrimination have often been carried to their farthest extremes in countries with the highest levels of education.
Contemporary scientific progress, and particularly the gene revolution, has raised great hopes but also alarming questions. In the temptation to perfect our species, are we not seeing the return of eugenics -- more specifically, a commercial form of eugenics that threatens to create a "two-track humanity"? Have the risks been properly understood concerning humanity's dream of taking control of itself -- or should we say, of being controlled by those who master the new procedures? Does the progress in modern genetics not threaten to lead to that "brave new world" prophesied by Aldous Huxley, with a new species of genetically engineered "supermen" dominating masses of "subhumans" excluded from the new genetic paradise?
More than ever, ethics needs to keep step with scientific progress and technological applications. It must be determined whether there is a risk in identifying characteristic gene sequences in populations living in a given geographic area: could this lead to the use of data for purposes of racial or ethnic discrimination? Also, what are the risks that new techniques of human reproduction will lead to discrimination in the selection of embryos? Selection may be employed to favour certain phenotypes, so that fewer people will be born with a genetic profile which is deemed undesirable; or on the contrary, to favour the birth of individuals with desirable characteristics, for example, the physical qualities needed to perform a certain kind of work.
Research on human genetic heritage could increase the temptation to deny the existence of human liberty. Many geneticists today are studying human genome sequences which may predispose individuals to certain kinds of behaviour (depression, rage, the use of memory, etc.). If individual and group behaviour is reduced to biology, we are in danger of being dispossessed of the concept of human liberty.
New forms of racism and discrimination based on the idea of inequality among cultures threaten to emerge in the 21st century. These tacit forms of racism and racial discrimination are essentially structural. But in the impoverished ghettos of the Northern and Southern hemispheres, they have already led to conditions of social and urban apartheid. This new social and cultural racism has almost no need for an ideology and an articulated discourse. It can, of course, be reinforced by inequalities in revenue and by conflicts related to a person's sense of belonging to a social category. But it may also converge with another threat: the possible emergence of a new kind of eugenics, based primarily on consumerism and commerce, and leading to new forms of discrimination fostered by the progress made in modern genetics and the new, almost demiurgic powers of technology and science.
Preventive measures need to be taken at the international and national levels, especially with regard to education, bioethics and urban policies. We must not overestimate the role of education in the fight against new forms of racism and discrimination -- it would be unfair to expect educational institutions to cure the ills which society itself has been unable to face -- but education could be a precious tool in this struggle, so long as we refuse the various forms of "educational apartheid" which are currently being implemented. Educational programmes, textbooks and pedagogical methods should be revamped in order to meet these new challenges.
Safeguards must also be established to prevent misapplications of the new genetics. There is a real danger that humanity's old demons will come back if groups are allowed to be stigmatised as genetically "less capable". The risk of eugenics and the manipulation of the human species is greater than ever. A bioethical framework should be established to deal with this gravest of dangers for human rights.
Manifestations of "urban apartheid" have become increasingly extreme, thereby challenging the fight against poverty and threatening democracy. If we wish to change our lives in the 21st century and carry on an effective fight against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and intolerance, it will be necessary to change our cities as well. Governments need to display their civic sense by adopting policies which can prevent the most serious kinds of dangers. Leading figures in civil society must also mobilise their efforts to ensure that the rights of every human being are fully recognised, and that their societies do not become essentially uncivil.
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