Is political under-representation of women about to become history? Reem Leila looks at the evidence If the number of female candidates participating in the forthcoming parliamentary elections is any indication, the next People's Assembly (PA) promises to be radically different in composition, with under- representation of women consigned to the past. Women have struggled to acquire equal political rights in order to participate in formulating national policies and in lawmaking, either through elections to legislative and local councils, becoming board members of professional syndicates and non- governmental organisations, or merely through casting their votes. Participation at both the grassroots and policy-making level enables women to influence the development process and ensure that gender specific problems are addressed. The constitution grants women full political rights. Yet despite efforts to enhance the political role of women it has remained limited. Ironically, while the number of female voters registering has increased, growing from 1.6 million to 3.6 million between 1975 and 1986 and reaching nine million by 2005, the number of female MPs has fallen, from 13 in 1990 to 11 in 1995 and eight in 2000 and 2005. Voting rights were extended to women by late president Gamal Abdel-Nasser with the adoption of the 1956 constitution. The first elections under the new constitution were held on 3 July 1957. There were only 16 women in a field of more than 2,000 candidates. Opinion polls conducted at the time showed that 70 per cent of Egyptian men were opposed to the idea of women taking seats in parliament. Nevertheless, Rawya Attia overcame the odds and received 110,807 votes in her Giza constituency, becoming the first female member of the PA. Attia tabled legislation allowing working women two- month maternity leave on full salary. In July 1958 she presented a law abolishing polygamy. Although supported by MPs from urban districts it was strongly opposed by MPs representing rural districts and was voted down. A study by the National Council for Women's (NCW) on female representation in the legislative councils attributes under-representation to a general political environment that fails to encourage participation regardless of gender, and to institutional weaknesses within political parties and civil society organisations. Changes in the laws governing parliamentary elections during the period 1983 to 1990 introduced proportional representation, only for it to be declared unconstitutional. The gender gap in illiteracy, education and employment, as well as a patriarchal local culture, all discourage women to seek a greater political role. Law 38/1972, amended by Law 21/1979 and Law 114/1983, set a minimum quota of 31 female seats in the People's Assembly, or seven per cent of the total. Then, says lawyer and women's lib activist Mona Zulfiqar, the Supreme Constitutional Court in 1986 included a footnote in an unrelated judgement stating that the provisions allocating a minimum number of seats for women was unconstitutional on the grounds that it violated the principle of equality enshrined in the constitution. "The People's Assembly immediately, and without waiting for a judgement by the Supreme Constitutional Court, amended the law and cancelled the provision," says Zulfiqar. "In 1979, under the quota system, female membership of local councils exceeded 10 per cent. This dropped to about 1.2 per cent in 1992 and 1997 and just one per cent in 2002 after cancellation of the quota system in 1986," says Zulfiqar. Local councils are considered an important first step for female politicians, allowing them to gain experience and build the constituencies necessary in order to run for parliamentary elections. In the 1995 elections the NDP nominated only 15 women, Wafd nominated five, the Islamist-oriented Labour Party three and the Nasserist Party none. The highest level of women's representation in parliament was 6.6 per cent following the 1987 elections. This year, it is expected that women will figure high on the lists of candidates of many parties, though prevalent social attitudes means many face a tough battle. This year, the National Democratic Party (NDP) is nominating 64 women, Tagammu ten, Ghad six, Al-Ahrar 11 women, Wafd 20, Al-Geel three, Misr 2000 60, Al-Salam 10 and the Muslim Brotherhood is expected to field at least 10 female candidates. It is still far from the 50 per cent of female candidates required by law in France, says Farkhonda Hassan, secretary-general of the NCW. Yet were Egypt's political parties to adopt a higher proportion of female candidates, between 30 and 50 per cent, suggests Hassan, it would avoid the mathematical argument on equality and still leave the final word to the electorate while at the same time parties would be meeting their obligations to promote political participation and develop political leadership among all segments of society. The NCW, Hassan points out, has already established a centre to contribute to building female cadres capable of taking part in elections.
